A hydraulic hybrid vehicle uses hydraulic and mechanical components instead of electrical ones. A variable displacement pump replaces the motor/generator, and a hydraulic accumulator replaces the batteries. The hydraulic accumulator, which is essentially a pressure tank, is potentially cheaper and more durable than batteries. Hydraulic hybrid technology was originally developed by Volvo Fly-g-motor and was used experimentally in buses from the early 1980s and is still an active area.
Initial concept involved a giant flywheel for storage connected to a hydrostatic transmission, but it was later changed to a simpler system using a hydraulic accumulator connected to a hydraulic pump/motor. It is also being actively developed by Eaton and several other companies, primarily in heavy vehicles like buses, trucks and military vehicles. An example is the Ford F-350 Mighty Tonka concept truck shown in 2002. It features an Eaton system that can accelerate the truck up to highway speeds.
Pneumatic hybrid
Compressed air can also power a hybrid car with a gasoline compressor to provide the power. MDI in France produces such air cars (See video). An Australian company invented a highly efficient air engine which may make pneumatic hybrid vehicle more competitive.
A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a full hybrid, able to run in electric-only mode, with larger batteries and the ability to recharge from the electric power grid. They are also called gas-optional, or griddable hybrids. Their main benefit is that they can be gasoline-independent for daily commuting, but also have the extended range of a hybrid for long trips. They can also be multi-fuel, with the electric power supplemented by diesel, biodiesel, or hydrogen. The Electric Power Research Institute's research indicates a lower total cost of ownership for PHEVs due to reduced service costs and gradually improving batteries. The "well-to-wheel" efficiency and emissions of PHEVs compared to gasoline hybrids depends on the energy sources of the grid (the US grid is 50% coal; California's grid is primarily natural gas, hydroelectric power, and wind power). Particular interest in PHEVs is in California where a "million solar homes" initiative is under way, and global warming legislation has been enacted.
Prototypes of plug-in hybrid cars, with larger battery packs that can be recharged from the power grid, have been built in the U.S., notably at Prof. Andy Frank's Hybrid Center at UC Davis and one production PHEV, the Renault Kangoo, went on sale in France in 2003. DaimlerChrysler is currently building PHEVs based on the Mercedes-Benz Sprinter van. Light Trucks are also offered by Micro-Vett SPA the so called Daily Bimodale.
The California Cars Initiative has converted the '04 and newer Toyota Prius to become a prototype of what it calls the PRIUS+. With the addition of 300 lb of lead-acid batteries, the PRIUS+ achieves roughly double the gasoline mileage of a standard Prius and can make trips of up to 10 miles using only electric power.
Car companies are working on plug-in hybrids, but current technology makes do not perform well. According to Dave Hermance, the Executive Engineer for Advanced Technology for Toyota North America, a plug-in hybrid in "electricity mode is only capable of 35 miles an hour top speed. It has fairly glacial acceleration performance and cost 15 to 25 thousand dollars more money."
SILHOUETTE OFFERS COMFORT, CONVENIENCE, SOPHISTICATED FEATURES
As Oldsmobile continues to wind down production, passenger comfort and convenience are the focus of the upscale 2004 Silhouette, especially the Premiere model with its state-of-the-art entertainment system and sophisticated features. Silhouette was designed for customers seeking a practical, roomy vehicle. With personal touches such as a separate rear audio system, Silhouette offers enough comfort and style to make any journey a pleasure. The 2004 Silhouette offers all of the quality and value customers have come to expect from Oldsmobile.
For 2004, Oldsmobile backs its commitment to quality by giving Silhouette a five-year/60,000-mile warranty, the most extensive in the GM lineup.
DVD-based entertainment system
Silhouette is available with a DVD entertainment system that allows passengers to enjoy the digital image quality and versatility of a state-of-the-art home system while on the road. The DVD system includes a ceiling-integrated, fold-down 7-inch (178-mm) monitor with high-fidelity audio for miles of highway enjoyment. Silhouette's DVD system allows rear-seat passengers to watch movies, play video games or listen to audio CDs. Headphones are included with the system so that rear-seat passengers can enjoy music or motion pictures while those in front listen to the CD player or radio.
Quiet, refined powertrain
Complementing its upscale ride and comfort is Silhouette's smooth, powerful 3400 3.4L V-6 engine and Hydra-Matic 4T65-E transmission. This well-matched powertrain is designed to give Silhouette plenty of passing and highway performance while contributing to a quiet, relaxed interior environment. Silhouette also offers impressive fuel economy estimates of 19 mpg for city driving and 26 mpg on the highway.
All-wheel drive
Silhouette is available with GM's Versatrak all-wheel-drive system that directs torque to the wheels with the most traction when road surfaces become slippery. Available on GLS and Premiere models only, Versatrak is the first AWD system to allow for a flat load floor and stowable third-row seat. Silhouette also comes equipped with four-wheel independent rear suspension for impressive handling characteristics and passenger comfort. Traction control is offered on two-wheel-drive Silhouette models.
Safety
Along with passenger comfort, Silhouette strives to excel in passenger safety with features such as dual-stage driver and front-passenger air bags. Dual-stage air bags offer maximum protection in high-speed crashes while minimizing the risk of injury to occupants of smaller stature. The dual-stage system calculates vehicle acceleration and crash severity, then provides the appropriate level of air-bag inflation. Silhouette also comes standard with side-impact air bags for the driver and front passenger. To ensure plenty of stopping power, Silhouette AWD comes equipped with four-wheel disc brakes.
With its car-like performance and handling, maximum comfort and impressive utility in a stylish, distinctive package, Oldsmobile will proudly build the 2004 Bravada as the division continues to wind down production.
Recognizing that 90 percent of mid-size SUVs are driven exclusively 'on-road,' Oldsmobile crafted Bravada primarily as a quality luxury touring vehicle, although it does offer full off-road capability. Designed to be a luxurious mid-size SUV, Bravada was created for the evolving desires of customers seeking added luxury, performance and driving refinement in a sport utility vehicle. For 2004, Bravada continues to offer all of the quality and value customers have come to expect from Oldsmobile. This year Oldsmobile backs its commitment to quality by giving Bravada a five-year/60,000-mile warranty, the most extensive in the GM lineup. New satellite radio technology
New for 2004, Bravada is available with the optional XM Satellite Radio system (continental U.S. only). XM Satellite Radio provides 100 coast-to-coast, digital-quality channels of original music, news, sports and talk. Consumers can subscribe to the basic service for $9.99 a month - less than the cost of a single CD. In addition, GM customers with GMAC financing can choose to include the XM subscription in their car payments. Inline Vortec power
For 2004, Bravada offers the Vortec 4200 4.2L, dual-overhead-camshaft, inline six-cylinder engine with four valves per cylinder. The all-aluminum I-6 engine, which delivers 275 horsepower (201 kw) and 275 lb.-ft. (372 Nm) of torque, provides quick, smooth acceleration.
The Vortec 4200 4.2L engine's variable valve timing (VVT) enables it to produce full torque across a wider band - between 1600 and 5600 rpm - as well as yield higher output and reduce exhaust emissions. Even with its 10.1:1 compression ratio there is no fuel economy penalty and regular unleaded fuel is still recommended. The engine's advanced 'lost-foam' cast-aluminum design contributes to weight savings, less machining and substantial benefits in overall quality.
Fuel economy estimates are 15 mpg city/21 mpg highway for the all-wheel-drive model and 16 mpg city/22 mpg highway for the two-wheel-drive model.
Suspension offers luxurious driving comfort
Bravada's chassis features rack-and-pinion steering for decreased turning radius, a short-/long-arm front suspension and an exclusive air bladder rear suspension that offers superior driving comfort and distinguishes it from the competition. Two different suspensions are available on the all-wheel-drive Bravada - the standard coil suspension or the air suspension found on two-wheel-drive Bravadas. With the air suspension system, road inputs are constantly monitored, and two highly durable air bladders automatically inflate or deflate independently for improved ride and handling, giving Bravada the character of a sport sedan.
A 24-mm solid rear stabilizer bar contributes to improved handling. And on-demand SmartTrak helps all-wheel-drive Bravadas maintain good traction throughout a variety of road conditions. Hydroformed side rails, coupled with eight structural cross-members, increase torsional rigidity by 260 percent. A five-link rear suspension eliminates the heavy rear leaf springs normally used in truck chassis design.
DVD-based entertainment system
As customers would expect of a mid-size Oldsmobile SUV, Bravada is available with a DVD player, elevating in-vehicle entertainment to a new level. The DVD system includes a ceiling-integrated, fold-down 7-inch (178 mm) monitor with high-fidelity audio for miles of highway enjoyment. The system allows rear-seat passengers to watch movies, play video games or listen to audio CDs. Headphones are included so that rear seat passengers can enjoy DVD entertainment while those in front listen to the CD player or radio.
Oldsmobile, the longest-standing automotive brand in North America, continues to wind down production with a strong lineup that includes its best-selling Alero sedan. For 2004, Alero provides mid-size vehicle buyers with sporty styling, precise handling, a smooth ride and spirited performance at a good value.
The 2004 Alero offers all of the quality and value customers have come to expect from Oldsmobile. For 2004, Oldsmobile backs its commitment to quality by giving Alero a five-year/60,000-mile warranty, the most extensive in the GM lineup.
Satellite radio technology
The Alero will offer XM Satellite Radio (continental U.S. only) as an option for the 2004 model year. XM Satellite Radio (continental U.S. only) provides 100 coast-to-coast, digital-quality channels of original music, news, sports and talk. Consumers can subscribe to the basic service for $9.99 a month - less than the cost of a single CD. In addition, GM customers with GMAC financing can choose to include the XM subscription in their car payments.
Powerful, efficient engine
For 2004, Alero will offer the all-aluminum, Ecotec 2.2L dual-overhead-cam engine. This inline four-cylinder engine, designed by an international team of engineers from GM Powertrain, Opel and Saab, achieves 140 hp (104 kw) at 5600 rpm, 150 lb.-ft. (203 Nm) of torque at 4000 rpm, and is standard on GX and GL1 models.
The engine delivers performance, efficiency, low maintenance and smooth operation. Twin balance shafts help provide smooth, quiet performance. These shafts, located in the cylinder block, help cancel out the shaking forces inherent in an inline four-cylinder engine, resulting in smooth performance from idle to maximum engine speed. The alternator, air-conditioning compressor, and power steering pump are directly mounted to the engine for vibration suppression. Cast iron cylinder liners enhance durability.
Alero offers good fuel economy, achieving 25 mpg for city driving and 33 mpg on the highway with the manual transmission, and 24 mpg city/32 mpg highway with the automatic.
Customers who want additional power can order Alero with a 3400 3.4L V-6 engine producing 170 hp (126 kw) at 4800 rpm and 200 lb.-ft. (271 Nm) of torque at 4000 rpm. The 3.4L V-6 engine comes standard on GLS and GL2 Alero models, and is available as an option on the GL1 Alero. It is coupled to a Hydra-Matic 4T45-E automatic transmission. Fuel economy estimates for the 3.4L V-6 are 20 mpg for city driving and 29 mpg on the highway.
Five-speed manual transmission
Alero began offering a five-speed manual transmission in 2001, and is the only Oldsmobile to do so. For the 2004 model year, the five-speed transmission continues to be an option on GX and GL1 models equipped with the Ecotec engine.
The Oldsmobile Toronado was sold from 1966 through 1992. It was built as a low-priced luxury car with excellent performance and a revolutionary design. The name Toronado has no meaning; it was made up for a 1963 Chevrolet show car.
The American automobile manufacutrer Cord had created a vehicle in the mid-1930's that used front-wheel drive. Since that time most American automobiles used rear-wheel drive. The Toronado, a full-sized American car using front wheel drive, is credited with revolutionizing and stimulating the industry to use the front-wheel design. A few European manufacturers, such as Morris/Austin with the Mini, had been utilizing the benefits of front-wheel drive. For the American Automotive Community, it was a risky concept. The front-wheel design was viewed as a reason why Cord had gone bankrupt. Many were skeptical of having the front of the vehicle handle most of the weight, be responsible for steering and braking, and drive the car.
GM's design chief William L. Mitchell was tasked with creating the Toronado. The styling was bold and the V8 engine was powerful. The engine was placed behind the front wheels to address the problems of front-drive designs such as weight bias. With 385 horsepower and 54%/46% front/rear weight distribution, the vehicle was fast and the handling was excellent.
During the year of introduction, it was awarded the coveted 'Car of the Year' by Motor Trend. The 'Car Life's Award for Engineering Excellence' was also bestowed up the Toronado.
When it was introduced, it was available as a two-door hardtop coupe. The only engine available was a 385 horsepower, 425 cubic-inch V8 engine. 34,630 examples were produced.
In 1967, the Toronado received minor aesthetic changes. The 425 cubic-inch V8 was the only engine available. Over 20,000 examples were created.
The big news for 1968 was the introduction of the 455 cubic-inch V8 rated at 375 horsepower. Minor aesthetic changes were made to the front of the vehicle including the fenders and grille. Over 26,000 examples were created.
For 1969, a vinyl top became optional equipment. The 425 and 455 engines were still available. The rear of the vehicle was updated to offset the changes that had been made to the front of the vehicle.
1970 was the final year for the first-generation Toronado. A GT version was introduced. The GT featured dual exhausts, a nugget-gold metallic, a GT hood badge, notched rear bumper, and 400 horsepower from the 455 cubic-inch V8. With a zero-to-sixty time of only 7.5 seconds, the Toronado GT was sneaking into muscle-car territory. Only 5,341 GT's were created, making it a highly collectable and sought-after vehicle. There were over 20,000 examples of the 2-door coupes for 1970.
In 1971, the second generation Toronado was introduced and lasted until 1978. The vehicle was more luxurious and less sporty then its predecessor. It is also recognized as being one of the first vehicles to use high-mounted auxiliary brake lights. From 1974 through 1976, General Motors equipped the vehicle with airbags, another safety innovation that was foreign at the time.
In 1977 and 1978 the XS model was introduced. It featured a hot wire 'bent-glass' rear window.
Due to increasing safety and government regulations, and fuel shortages the entire industry was down-sizing the output of their engines. The 455 V8 engine was replaced by a 403 cubic-inch power-plant.
The third generation ran from 1979 through 1985. A variety of engines were offered during this time including diesel, gasoline, V6, and V8 flavors. All were seriously de-tuned and offered fuel-economy over performance.
Independent suspension was placed on the rear of the vehicle. This not only improved the performance of the vehicle, but also the quality of the ride.
The fourth generation of the Toronado was introduced in 1986 and lasted until 1992. The vehicle continued to decrease in size and sales. The only engine available was the 231 cubic-inch V6.
On May 28, 1992, the final Oldsmobile Toronado rolled of the Hamtramck, Michigan assemble line. After a long and successful production life span, the vehicle was no longer produced.
Mild hybrids are essentially conventional vehicles with oversized starter motors, allowing the engine to be turned off whenever the car is coasting, braking, or stopped, yet restart quickly and cleanly. Accessories can continue to run on electrical power while the engine is off, and as in other hybrid designs, the motor is used for regenerative braking to recapture energy. The larger motor is used to spin up the engine to operating rpm speeds before injecting any fuel.
Many people do not consider these to be hybrids at all, and these vehicles do not achieve the fuel economy of full hybrid models. A major example is the 2005 Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid, a full-size pickup truck. Chevrolet was able to get a 10% improvement on the Silverado's fuel efficiency by shutting down and restarting the engine on demand. Mild hybrids often use 48 volt systems to supply the power needed for the startup motor, as well as to compensate for the increasing number of electronic accessories on modern vehicles.
General Motors followed the pickup truck hybrid with their Belt alternator starter (BAS) hybrid system, used in the 2006 Saturn VUE Green Line. It operates in much the same manner as the "start-stop" system in the Silverado, but the electric motor can also provide modest assist under acceleration.
Assist hybrids use the engine for primary power, with a torque-boosting electric motor also connected to a largely conventional powertrain. The electric motor is essentially a very large starter motor, which operates not only when the engine needs to be turned over, but also when the driver "steps on the gas" and requires extra power. Honda's hybrids including the Insight use this design, leveraging their reputation for design of small, efficient gasoline engines; their system is dubbed Integrated Motor Assist (IMA). Assist hybrids differ fundamentally from full hybrids in that they cannot run on electric power alone. However, since the amount of electrical power needed is much smaller, the size of the battery systems is reduced.
A variation on this type is Mazda's e-4WD system, offered on the Mazda Demio sold in Japan. This front-wheel drive vehicle has an electric motor which can drive the rear wheels when extra traction is needed. The system is entirely disengaged in all other driving conditions, so it does not enhance performance or economy.
Ford has dubbed Honda's hybrids "mild" in their advertising for the Escape Hybrid, arguing that the Escape's full hybrid design is more efficient. However, assist hybrids should not be confused with actual mild hybrids like the Chevrolet Silverado Hybrid.
A full hybrid, sometimes also called a strong hybrid, is a vehicle that can run on just the engine, just the batteries, or a combination of both. The Prius and Escape Hybrids are examples of this, as both cars can be moved forward on battery power alone. A large, high-capacity battery pack is needed for battery-only operation. These vehicles have a split power path that allows more flexibility in the drivetrain by interconverting mechanical and electrical power, at some cost in complexity. To balance the forces from each portion, the vehicles use a differential-style linkage between the engine and motor connected to the head end of the transmission.
The Toyota brand name for this technology is Hybrid Synergy Drive, which is being used in the Prius and the Highlander sport-utility vehicle (SUV). A computer oversees operation of the entire system, determining which half should be running, or if both should be in use, shutting off the internal combustion engine when the electric motor is sufficient to provide the power. The normal mode of operation is on electrical power alone, with the gasoline engine running only in cases where the extra power is required, or where the batteries are discharged. The hybrid drivetrain of the Prius, in combination with aerodynamics and optimizations in the engine itself to reduce drag, results in 80%–100% gains in fuel economy compared to four-door conventional cars of similar weight and size.
The main principle behind this system is the more-or-less complete decoupling of the power supplied by the engine (or other primary source) from the power demanded by the driver. Thus a smaller, less flexible engine may be used, which is designed for maximum efficiency (often using variations of the conventional Otto cycle, such as the Miller or Atkinson cycle). This contributes significantly to the higher overall efficiency of the vehicle, with regenerative braking playing a much smaller role.
The differing torque vs. rpm characteristics of the internal combustion and electrical motors operate synergistically; an internal combustion engine's torque is minimal at lower RPMs, since the engine must be its own air pump. Thus, the need for reasonably rapid acceleration from a standing start results in an engine which is much larger than required for steady speed cruising. On the other hand, an electrical motor exhibits maximum torque at stall; therefore this engine is well suited to complement the internal combustion engine's torque deficiency at low RPMs, allowing the use of a much smaller and therefore more fuel efficient engine.
General Motors, BMW, and DaimlerChrysler are working together on a so-called Two-Mode Hybrid system which is a full hybrid plus additional efficiency improvements. The technology will be released in 2008 on the Chevrolet Tahoe Hybrid. The system was also featured on the GMC Graphite SUV concept vehicle at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit.
Parallel systems, which are most commonly produced at present, connect both the electrical and internal combustion systems to the mechanical transmission. They can be subcategorized depending upon how balanced the different portions are at providing motive power. In some cases, the internal combustion engine is the dominant portion and is used for primary power, with the motor turning on only when a boost is needed. Others can run with just the electric system operating alone. Most designs combine a large electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often situated between the internal combustion engine and the transmission, in the location of the flywheel, replacing both the conventional starter motor and the generator or alternator. A large battery pack is required, providing a higher voltage than the normal automotive 12 volts. Accessories such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric motors, so that they continue to function when the internal combustion engine is stopped; this offers the possibility of further efficiency gains, by modulating the electrical power delivered to these systems, rather than having them run directly from the engine at a speed which depends on engine speed.
In a series design, the internal combustion engine is not directly connected to the drivetrain at all, but powers an electrical generator instead. This is similar to the operation of diesel-electric train locomotives, except that as of 2006, the overwhelming majority of diesel-electric locomotives do not store auxiliary power in batteries for use in propulsion. A series hybrid is similar to an electric car which is recharged by electricity from a stationary fossil fuel power plant, except that the power plant is carried on board.
Electricity from the generator is fed to the motor or motors that actually move the car, and excess energy can be used to charge batteries. When large amounts of power are required, electricity comes from both the battery pack and the engine-generator section. Because electrical motors can operate quite efficiently over a wide range of speeds, this design removes or reduces the need for a complex transmission. The internal combustion engine can also be finely tuned to operate at its most efficient speed whenever it is running, for a great gain in efficiency. Separate small electric motors installed at each wheel are featured in some prototypes and concept cars; this allows the possibility of easily controlling the power delivered to each wheel, and therefore simplifies traction control, all wheel drive, and similar features.
The advantage of this type of hybrid is the flexibility afforded by the lack of a mechanical link between the internal combustion engine and the wheels. A weakness of a series hybrid system, however, is that series hybrids require separate motor and generator portions, which can be combined in some parallel hybrid designs; the combined efficiency of the motor and generator will be lower than that of a conventional transmission, offsetting the efficiency gains that might otherwise be realized. Still, series hybrids are useful in driving cycles that incorporate many stops and starts, such as for delivery vehicles, or stop and go city driving. It is likely that some fuel cell cars will use a series-style setup, with the fuel cells replacing the engine-generator section; this would eliminate the loss of efficiency inherent in converting the mechanical output of an internal combustion engine to electrical power.
There are many ways to create an electric-internal combustion hybrid. The variety of electric-ICE designs can be differentiated by how the electric and combustion portions of the powertrain connect, at what times each portion is in operation, and what percent of the power is provided by each hybrid component. Two major categories are series hybrids and parallel hybrids, though parallel designs are most common today.
Most hybrids, no matter the specific type, use regenerative braking to recover energy when slowing down the vehicle. This simply involves running the motor backwards as a generator.
Many designs also shut off the internal combustion engine when it is not needed in order to save energy. That concept is not unique to hybrids; Subaru pioneered this feature in the early 1980s, and the Volkswagen Lupo 3L is one example of a conventional vehicle that shuts off its engine when at a stop. Some provision must be made, however, for accessories such as air conditioning which are normally driven by the engine. Furthermore, the lubrication systems of internal combustion engines are inherently least effective immediately after the engine starts; since it is upon startup that the majority of engine wear occurs, the frequent starting and stopping of such systems reduce the lifespan of the engine considerably. Also, start and stop cycles may reduce the engine's ability to operate at its optimum temperature, thus reducing the engine's efficiency.
In May 2003 JR East started test runs with the so called NE (new energy) train and validated the system's operability (series hybrid with lithium ion battery) in cold regions. In 2004, RailPower Technologies had been running pilots in the US with the so called Green Goats which led to orders by the Union Pacific and Canadian Pacific Railways starting in early 2005.
Also in 2005 GE introduced its hybrid shifters on the market. Toyota claims to have started with the Coaster Hybrid Bus in 1997 on the Japanese market. In May 2003 GM started to tour with hybrid buses developed together with Allison. Several hundreds of those buses have entered into daily operation in the US. The Blue Ribbon City Hybrid bus was presented by Hino, a Toyota affiliate, in January 2005.
In 2003 GM introduced a diesel hybrid military (light) truck, equipped with a diesel electric and a fuel cell auxiliary power unit. Hybrid light trucks were introduced 2004 by Mercedes (Hybrid Sprinter) and Micro-Vett SPA (Daily Bimodale). International Truck and Engine Corp. and Eaton Corp. have been selected to manufacture diesel-electric hybrid trucks for a US pilot program serving the utility industry in 2004. In mid 2005 Isuzu introduced the Elf Diesel Hybrid Truck on the Japanese Market. They claim that approximately 300 vehicles, mostly route buses are using Hinos HIMR (Hybrid Inverter Controlled Motor & Retarder) system.
A promising but as-yet unseen application for hybrid vehicle technology would be in garbage trucks, since these vehicles do stop-start driving and often stand idling.
Taxicabs
In 2005, New York City added six Ford Escape Hybrids to their taxi fleet and city officials said the entire fleet of 13,000 vehicles could be converted within five years.
* Ford: o Ford Escape Hybrid o Mercury Mariner Hybrid
* Honda: o Honda Insight (International Engine of the Year 2000) o Honda Civic Hybrid o Honda Accord Hybrid
* General Motors: o Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra Hybrid (debatable, see Mild hybrid) o New Flyer hybrid buses using Allisons electric drive system o Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid.
* Lexus o Lexus RX400h o Lexus GS450h o Lexus LS600hL
* Mazda: o Mazda Demio (Japan-only, debatable, see Assist hybrid)
* Renault: o Renault Kangoo o Moped o Power-assisted bicycle o Electric bicycle
In 1959 the development of the first transistor-based electric car - the Henney Kilowatt - heralded the development of the electronic speed control that paved the way for modern hybrid electric cars. The Henney Kilowatt was the first modern production electric vehicle and was developed by a cooperative effort between National Union Electric Company, Henney Coachworks, Renault, and the Eureka Williams Company. Although sales of the Kilowatt were dismal, the developement of the Kilowatt served was a historical "who's who" of electric propulsion technology.
A more recent working prototype of the electric-hybrid vehicle was built by Victor Wouk (one of the scientists involved with the Henney Kilowatt and also brother of author Herman Wouk ). Wouk's work with electric hybrid vehicles in the 1960s and 1970s earned the title as the "Godfather of the Hybrid"). Wouk installed a prototype electric-hybrid drivetrain into a 1972 Buick Skylark provided by GM for the 1970 Federal Clean Car Incentive Program, but the program was killed by the EPA in 1976. Since then, hobbyists have continued to build hybrids but none was put into mass production by a major manufacturer until the waning years of the twentieth century.
The regenerative-braking hybrid, the core design concept of most production hybrids, was developed by Electrical Engineer David Arthurs around 1978 using off-the shelf components and an Opel GT. However the voltage controller to link the batteries, motor (a jet-engine starter motor), and DC generator was Mr. Arthurs The vehicle exhibited ~75 mpg fuel efficiency and plans for it (as well as somewhat updated versions) are still available through the Mother Earth News web site. The Mother Earth News' own 1980 version claimed nearly 84 mpg.
The Bill Clinton administration initiated the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)[3] program in September 29, 1993 that involved Chrysler, Ford, General Motors, USCAR, the DoE, and other various governmental agencies to engineer the next efficient and clean vehicle. The NRC cited automakers’ moves to produce hybrid electric vehicles as evidence that technologies developed under PNGV were being rapidly adopted on production lines, as called for under Goal 2. Based on information received from automakers, NRC reviewers questioned whether the “Big Three” would be able to move from the concept phase to cost effective, pre-production prototype vehicles by 2004, as set out in Goal 3. [Review of the Research Program of the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles: Seventh Report, National Research Council, (2001), p. 77].
The program was replaced by the hydrogen focused FreedomCAR initiative[4] of George W. Bush's administration in 2001. The focus of the FreedomCAR initiative being to fund research too high risk for the private sector to engage in with the long term goal of developing emission / petroleum free vehicles.
In the intervening period, the widest use of hybrid technology was actually in diesel-electric submarines, which operate in essentially the same manner as hybrid electric cars. However, in this case the goal was to allow operation underwater without consuming large amounts of oxygen, rather than economizing on fuel. Since then, many submarines have moved to nuclear power, which can operate underwater indefinitely, though a number of nations continue to rely on diesel-electric fleets.
Automotive hybrid technology became successful in the 1990s when the Honda Insight and Toyota Prius became available. These vehicles have a direct linkage from the internal combustion engine to the driven wheels, so the engine can provide acceleration power. The 2000s saw development of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), which can be recharged from the electrical power grid and do not require conventional fuel for short trips. The Renault Kangoo was the first production model of this design, released in France in 2003. However, the environmental benefits of plug-in hybrids depend somewhat on the source of the electrical power. In particular, electricity generated with wind would be cleaner than electricity generated with coal, the most polluting source. On the other hand, electricity generated with coal in a central power plant is still much cleaner than pure gasoline propulsion, due to the much greater efficiencies of a central plant. Furthermore, coal is only one source of centrally generated power, and in some places such as California is only a minor contributor, overshadowed by natural gas and other cleaner sources.
The Prius has been in high demand since its introduction. Newer designs have more conventional appearance and are less expensive, often appearing and performing identically to their non-hybrid counterparts while delivering 50% better fuel efficiency. The Honda Civic Hybrid appears identical to the non-hybrid version, for instance, but delivers about 50 US mpg (4.7 L/100km). The redesigned 2004 Toyota Prius improved passenger room, cargo area, and power output, while increasing energy efficiency and reducing emissions. The Honda Insight, while not matching the demand of the Prius, is still being produced and has a devoted base of owners. Honda has also released a hybrid version of the Accord.
2005 saw the first hybrid SUV released, Ford Motor Company's Ford Escape Hybrid. Toyota and Ford entered into a licensing agreement in March 2004 allowing Ford to use 20 patents from Toyota related to hybrid technology, although Ford's engine was independently designed and built. In exchange for the hybrid licences, Ford licensed patents involving their European diesel engines to Toyota. Toyota announced model year 2005 hybrid versions of the Toyota Highlander and Lexus RX 400h with 4WD-i which uses a rear electric motor to power the rear wheels negating the need for a differential. Toyota also plans to add hybrid drivetrains to every model it sells in the coming decade.
For 2007 Lexus is offering a hybrid version of their GS sport sedan dubbed the GS450h with "well in excess of 300hp". The 2007 Camry Hybrid has been announced and is slated to launch in late Spring as a 2007 model. It will be built in Kentucky, USA. Also, Nissan announced the release of the Altima hybrid (technology supplied by Toyota) around 2007.
An R.L. Polk survey of 2003 model year cars showed that hybrid car registrations in the United States rose to 43,435 cars, a 25.8 % increase from 2002 numbers. California, the nation's most populous state at one-eighth of the total population, had the most hybrid cars registered: 11,425. The proportionally high number may be partially due to the state's higher gasoline prices and stricter emissions rules, which hybrids generally have little trouble passing.
Honda, which offers Insight, Civic and Accord hybrids, sold 26,773 hybrids in the first 11 months of 2004. Toyota has sold a cumulative 306,862 hybrids between 1997 and November 2004, and Honda has sold a total of 81,867 hybrids between 1999 and November 2004.
Super Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (SULEV) is a conventionally powered or gas-electric hybrid vehicle designed to produce minimal air pollution at their point of use, typically less than 10% of that of an equivalent ordinary vehicle.
Scope regarding emissions
Controlled pollution categories are:
* Hydrocarbons
* Nitrous oxides
* Carbon monoxide
The well to wheel emission balance is not included in the classification as SULEV, with certain fuel generation paths it might well prove to be more polluting for the wider environment.
Technologies
Several techniques can be used to reduce pollution. Since automobiles most heavily pollute when warming up the catalytic converter, moving this closer to the engine (or even heating it electrically) will enable it to quickly become effective. Preheating the cylinder head from previously saved hot coolant is used in some vehicles. Careful management of engine shut down is required to eliminate uncombusted fuel. Engine shutdown while the vehicle is stopped, rather than idling the engine, not only reduces pollution but can greatly improve mileage in severe city driving. A vapor tight fuel tank and system eliminate one source of hydrocarbon emission. Special catalytic converters called three-way catalytic converters reduce all three of the target pollutions from the exhaust pipe.
An example of a hybrid vehicle delivering SULEV emissions performance is the Honda Insight Toyota Prius. A conventionally powered example is the Ford Focus SULEV variant. In 2005, General Motors' 3800 Series III V6 engines became the industry's first gasoline V6s to carry the SULEV rating and can be found the the Pontiac Grand Prix and Buick LaCrosse.
Tax incentives
In the U.S. State of California, manufacturers of SULEVS can be given a partial credit for producing a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) and so a vehicle of this type can be administratively designated as PZEV (Partial Zero-Emission Vehicle). In order to qualify as a PZEV, a vehicle must meet the SULEV standard and, in addition, have zero evaporative emissions from its fuel system plus an extended (ten-year/150,000-mile) warranty on its emission-control components. In the case of hybrid vehicles this warranty is extended to the electric propulsion components (electric motor/generator/starter, battery, inverter, controls) and their mechanical interface to the driveline - potentially a distinct advantage to the owner of such a vehicle.
The Taunus V4 was a V4 piston engine with one balance shaft, introduced by Ford Motor Company in Germany in 1962. The German V4 was built in the Cologne plant and powered the Ford Taunus and German versions of the Consul, Granada and Transit. It was not a 'true' V engine as two opposing pistons did not share one crankpin on the crankshaft.
The V4 was later expanded into the Ford Cologne V6 engine that is used in the Ford Capri and many other Ford cars. The V4 engine was (and still is) also used in industrial applications: pumps, generators, and in agricultural machinery. In automobiles, the Taunus V4 was replaced by the Ford OHC/Pinto engine.
Applications:
* Ford Taunus * Ford Consul * Ford Granada * Ford Transit * Saab 95 * Saab 96 * Saab Sonett (II-V4 and III) * 1970-1971 Marcos 2 litre * Matra 530
1.2
The 1.2 L (1183 cm³) version features an 80.0 mm bore and 58.9 mm stroke. Output was 50 hp (37 kW) and 61 ft·lbf (83 N·m).
Applications:
* 1962 Ford Taunus 12M
1.5
The 1.5 L (1498 cm³) V4 had a 90.0 mm bore and 58.86 mm stroke. It produced 65 hp (48 kW) and 86 ft·lbf (117 N·m) at 2500 RPM.
Applications:
* 1967-1978/1980 Saab 95 and Saab 96 (European market) * 1967-1970 Saab 95, Saab 96 and Saab Sonett (USA market)
1.7
The 1.7 L (1699 cm³) V4 had a 90.0 mm bore and 66.8 mm stroke. It produced 70 hp (52 kW) and 101 ft·lbf (137 N·m).
Applications:
* 1966 Ford Taunus 17M * 1971-1974 Saab 95, Saab 96 and Saab Sonett (USA market)
This engine was also used in skid-steers.
Also, some DKW Munga, a Jeep like vehicle used in the German army were retrofitted with this Ford V4, to replace its standard two stroke engine.
Since the engine mounts and gearbox connections are identical between the Ford Cologne V6 engine and the V4, some vintage V4 Saab 96s were modified to take a V6, for rally racing, although this dramatically changed the weight distribution and steering characteristics.
The BMW E21 was the original BMW 3-Series automobile, produced from 1975 to 1983. It replaced the BMW 2002 and was succeeded by the BMW E30. Worldwide sales of the E21 topped 1.36 million, although the car was not particularly popular in the lucrative United States market.
Variants
* 315: The most economical model, introduced to the market in reaction to the second "oil crisis" in late 1979, with a 4-cylinder M10 1.6L engine and a single downdraft carburetor, 75 hp. More spartan than the other E21 models, it was the last E21 to be built and shared production with the E30.
* 316: The original 3-series base model with M10 1.8L engine, 90 hp.
* 318: Slightly more powerful version (98 hp) with 1.8L engine.
* 318i: An upgraded version of the 316 featuring the M10 1.8L engine fitted with a Bosch fuel injection system, introduced in 1979 as successor to the carburetted 318.
* 320: Featured an M10 four-cylinder engine with a Solex 2-barrel downdraft carburetor, 109 hp.
* 320i: Upgraded version of 320 with an M10 engine; Bosch K Jetronic fuel injection, 125 hp.
* 320/6: Featured the new BMW 6 cylinder engine, the M20 2.0L, and a Solex 4-barrel downdraft carburetor; replaced the 320/4 from 1979 on.
* 323i: Featuring the M20 and Bosch K jetronic fuel injection, the 323i was the top model of the line, 143 hp, and replaced the 320i from 1979 on.
In non-USA markets, the 316/318/318i models were marked by single headlights, while the more upscale 320/323i models featured quad headlights.
The 320i was available in the United States market and was remarkably different from the European models. Department of Transportation (DOT) safety regulations required larger bumpers, different headlight sets, and DOT marker lamps on the sides.
Companies such as Hartge, Alpina and AC Schnitzer offered aftermarket modifications for the E21.
A cabriolet conversion was offered by Karrosserie Baur GmbH, based on regular E21 models. The cabriolet conversion was composed of a targa roof and an independent rear soft top. Production of the Baur TopCabriolet began in 1978, and were sold via the BMW dealership network. All TopCabriolets included the BMW warranty. A total of 4,595 vehicles were manufactured before production ended in 1981.
The BMW E60 is the current BMW 5 Series. Its design and many of its advanced features initially received mixed reviews. The E60 represents a huge leap in technological advance over previous models. It is now regarded as one of BMWs finest and most innovative models.
Active Seat continuous passive motion available on the 7-Series is introduced as an option on the 5-Series for driver and front passenger seats.
It is available in both sedan and wagon versions and has the following models:
* 2003- 520d - 2.0 L (1995 cc) diesel I4, 120 kW (163 hp) * 2003-2004 520i - 2.2 L (2171 cc) I6, 125 kW (170 hp) * 2004- 523i - 2.5 L (2497 cc) I6, 130 kW (177 hp) * 2003- 525i - 2.5 L (2497 cc) I6, 160 kW (215 hp DIN) * 2003- 525d - 2.5 L (2497 cc) diesel I6, 130 kW (177 hp DIN) * 2003- 530i - 3.0 L (2979 cc) I6, 190 kW (258 hp DIN) * 2003- 530d - 3.0 L (2993 cc) diesel I6, 160 kW (218 hp DIN) * 2004- 535d - 3.0 L (2993 cc) diesel I6, 200 kW (272 hp DIN) and 413 ft·lbf (560 N·m) (compression ratio: 16.5:1) * 2003- 545i - 4.4 L (4398 cc) N62B44 V8, 245 kW (333 hp DIN) * 2005- 550i - 4.8 L (4799 cc) BMW V8 V8, 270 kW (367 hp DIN) * 2004- M5 - 5.0 L (4999 cc) V10, 373 kW (500 hp)
All wheel drive is now an option on the 5 Series for the first time since the E34 in 1996. The xDrive system is shared with the X3 and X5. Models, following the company's naming scheme, will be the 525xi and 530xi.
Awards
The E39 5 Series was on Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list for six years straight, from its introduction in 1997 through 2002. It was also Motor Trend's Import Car of the Year for 1997 and What Car? Executive Car of the Year 1997 through 2002. The E60 was named "Best New Luxury / Prestige Car" in the 2006 Canadian Car of the Year awards. Active Seat continuous passive motion seating comfort technology recognized as one of the Best Inventions of 1998 by Popular Science magazine.
* BMW World Active Seat Info * BMW Official Active Seat web page * Official website * Official M5 site * E60 5 series Information and Forum * BMWNut is a collection of BMW related information, including repair and modification how-to's, BMW model information, performance product reviews and additional 5 series BMW links. * BMW 530xi Review * Edmunds BMW 5 Series retrospective * AutoGuideWiki.com BMW on Autoguide Wiki * United Bimmer - BMW community with support forum and wallpaper gallery. * Used BMW 5 Series information * BMW Do It Yourself - BMW DIY articles for the home mechanic. * BMW 5 Series Models
The job of a car sales person is to squeeze out every possible dollar from you for the car sale. Every sales aspect discussed so far adds an opportunity for the dealer to make money. Buying cars for less than near invoice involves negotiating the best deal for every aspect of the car sale.
Points Of Caution Before Approaching The Dealer
1) As disinterested as a dealer may sometimes appear in making a sale, never forget that the dealer's life revolves around selling cars. They want to sell you the car, but don't want appear as an eager seller.
2) Dealers are trained to sweet talk you into spending the last possible dollar you are willing to spend on the car.
3) Dealers don't want to lose money on the deal. They need to make a certain profit to stay in business. Typical comfortable profit margins = $1600 (Lower end) to $2400 or more.
4) Grab a pencil and a pad, and go through each aspect of buying a car before you talk to the dealer. Remember, knowledge is power.
Approaching the Dealer
1) Have your homework ready.
2) Be calm and appear confident in the knowledge you have acquired at this site.
3) Talk to the sales manager and say you want a great deal, and that you want them to make a profit.
4) Show them each aspect of your thinking on how you arrived at the reasonable car price. Let them know you understand where the dealer makes the money.
5) If the sales guy seems disinterested (one of their mind games), ask to talk to the fleet manager!
6) Be prepared to walk away from the deal, so that the dealer may contemplate his next move. They want to make a sale more than you think, and will call you within a day or two!
Newer cars which are in hot demand are not likely to sell for less than invoice. For cars with a waiting period, many are sold at MSRP or more. As a guide, cars which spend 0-40 days on the floor are sold at MSRP, 40-80 Days on the lot at Invoice Price, and greater than 80 Days on the lot for lower than Invoice Price
Your gender and age group
Your gender and age group will also determine how the dealer negotiates the car price with you. This will ultimately determine the price you pay for the car. Young adults, women, and minorities are more likely to pay more for the car than more mature adult males. This disadvantage in buying a car can easily be addressed via first getting car quotes online, and discussing them with the dealers over the phone.
Trade-ins
Trade-ins affect the price you pay for the new car. Always research your car's trade in value before going into the dealership. Dealers are usually willing to give you a better price if you indicate to them that you are considering trading in your old car. An excellent place to calculate your old car's price is kbb.com.
Time of month
The time of month also determines the motivation of the dealer to sell you the car. Since car salesmen have a monthly quota with rewards for good performance, they are more motivated to settle for less margin towards the end of the month. The dealer stands to get rewards from the manufacturer if the dealership sells a certain number of cars. Of course it is recommended that you don't wait until the end of the month to start the car buying research, be ready when the time comes.
Days supply of inventory
The "days supply of inventory" for the dealership also determines the dealer's motivation to move cars from his lot. The more cars the dealer has on his lot, the more eager he or she is to sell the cars. The auto manufacturers usually start pressuring dealerships to start moving their inventory should their inventory get high.
Dealer Margins
Dealers prefer making larger margins per car sold rather than making smaller margins, and selling more quantities of cars. As there are many people who don't know how to negotiate and buy cars, car salesmen always try their best before they give in.
Car Loans from Dealers
Dealerships are more willing to give you a steeper discount if you seek a car loan from them. If you get a pre-qualified loan before going to the dealership via online sites or banks, some dealerships may match your rate, and when that happens the dealer stands to make some money of the loan to you, and pass some savings your way.
Payment or Price buyer
What type of a buyer are you? Payment or Price buyer? – Dealers try selling you on the monthly payment model. This way they can manipulate figures behind the scenes and still allow you to pay monthly dues that you can afford. If you are planning to be a payment buyer, be prepared to be smart on how the interest rates are being manipulated.
Your financial standing for the car loan Ideally dealers are looking for a 700 to 600 FICA rated customers. These command a premium over customers rated 500 (Poor financial rating), or (800 perfect financial rating). The buy rate and sell rate of the loan enables dealers to make an extra profit.
Accessories
Always shop around for any car add-ons you may seek to install in the car. Unwary buyers end up paying 2-3 times more for Alarms, Sound Systems, Automobile Undercoating, Spoilers, Stain Guarding etc if they shop for these at the dealers. Being prudent means finding out these costs before going into the dealership. The dealer is very likely to match the outside pricing, once they find out that you have done your homework.
The United States can be considered the "home of the V8" — it has always been more popular there than anywhere else, and it is certainly now the preferred arrangement for any large engine. With the recent exceptions of the Dodge Viper's V10, the similar Dodge Built Ram Tough V10, and the Ford large truck engine of the same arrangement, there are practically no large engines in the US of post-World War II design that have not been of this type.
Cadillac produced the first American V8 engine, 1914's L-Head. It was a complicated hand-built unit with cast iron paired closed-head cylinders bolted to an aluminum crankcase, and it used a flat-plane crankshaft. Peerless followed, introducing a V8 licensed from amusement park manufacturer, Herschell-Spillman, the next year. Cadillac and Peerless were one year apart again (1923 and 1924, respectively) with the introduction of the cross-plane crankshaft. Cunningham and Lincoln also had V8 cars in those years.
Ford were the first company to use V8s en masse. Instead of going to a straight-6 like its competitors when something larger than a straight-4 was needed, Ford designed a modern V8, the famous Flathead of 1932. This engine powered almost all larger Ford cars until 1953, and was produced until around 1970 by Ford licensees around the world, mostly powering commercial vehicles.
After World War II, greater vehicle size meant that the straight-6 became increasingly underpowered, while lower hoods and more aerodynamic styling meant that the straight-8 was simply too large. General Motors responded to Ford's V8 success with the 1949 introduction of the Oldsmobile Rocket and Cadillac OHV, the first OHV V8 engines ever produced. Chrysler introduced their FirePower hemi-head V8 the next year. Sales were beyond all expectations, so Buick, Chevrolet, and Pontiac introduced V8s of their own in 1954.
A full history of each manufacturer's engines is out of scope in this article, but engine sizes on full-size cars grew throughout the 1950s, 1960s and into the early to mid 1970s. The increasing size of full-size cars meant that smaller models of car were introduced and became more popular, with the result that by the 1960s Chrysler, Ford, and Chevrolet had two V8 models.
The larger engines, known as big-block V8s, were used in the full-size cars. Big-blocks generally had displacements in excess of 6 L (360 in³), but in stock form are often not all that efficient. Big-block displacement reached its zenith with the 1970 Cadillac Eldorado's 8.2 L (500 in³) 500. Once the 1970s oil crisis and pollution regulations hit, big-block V8s didn't last too much longer in cars; luxury cars lasted the longest, but by 1977 or so they were gone. In trucks and other larger vehicles, big-block V8s continue to be used today, though some manufacturers have replaced them with small-block-based V10s.
Smaller engines, known as small-block V8s, were fitted in the mid-size car ranges and generally displaced between 4.4 L (270 in³) and 6.0 L (360 in³), though some grew as large as Ford's 6.7 L (408 in³) 400 Cleveland. As can be seen, there is overlap between big-block and small-block ranges, and an engine between 6.0 L and 6.6 L could belong to either class. Engines like this (much evolved, of course) are still in production.
During the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, every General Motors division had their own engines, whose merits varied. This enabled each division to have its own unique engine character, but made for much duplication of effort. Most, like the comparatively tiny Buick 215 and familiar Chevrolet 350, were confusingly shared across many divisions. Ford and Chrysler had fewer divisions, and division-specific engines were quickly abandoned in favor of a few shared designs. Today, there are less than a dozen different American V8 engines in production.
The most widespread use of the V10 has been in Formula 1 racing, where the configuration was introduced by Honda and Renault before the 1989 season. The introduction of the 3 litre rule made the V10 seem the best compromise between the V8 and the V12. Renault had a more flat 110° angle motor in 2002 and 2003 but reverted to a conventional layout following the change in rules which dictated that an engine must last two race weekends. In a further change to the rules V10s are to be banned for the 2006 season in favour of V8s.
There are also cars with V10 engines in sports car racing, usually with Judd powerplants with 4 or 5 litre engines, made available for customers, although the first V10 was seen in the works Peugeot 905, in the final races of the 1990 World Endurance Championship season.
Until recently V10s had rarely been a popular configuration for road cars: a V12 is only slightly more complicated and runs more smoothly and a V8 is less complex and more economical.
* Dodge developed a V10 version of its LA series small block for use in trucks. However, the engine saw its first production use in substantially revised form in the Dodge Viper. The original truck version of the engine was eventually used starting in 1994 in the Dodge Ram.
* The Dodge Viper engine uses a 8.3 L (8.0 L in the previous generation) V10 engine, which has since been made available in the Dodge Ram SRT-10 Ram sport pickup. It is a 90 degree V10, but is arranged in an odd-firing order to allow for smooth operation without a balance shaft. The 2006 production 8.3 L engine is rated 510hp 535lbft. Highly modified naturally aspirated variants have run to 750 hp, and turbocharged variants to over 1200 hp.
* Bristol has utilized the 8.0L Viper V10 crate engines in their cars, one tuned to 525 hp is used in the Bristol Fighter. The 2004 Bristol S model is tuned to 628 hp.
* The Ford Triton V10 was developed as a replacement for Ford's aging 460 big block. The engine is a member of the Ford Modular engine family, which eliminates the need for Ford to maintain separate big-block and small-block families. The engine is available in the F250 and F-350 pickup trucks and the Ford Excursion full size SUV, as well as the E-Series full-size van.
* The Volkswagen Phaeton and Volkswagen Touareg currently have a 5.0 L turbocharged Diesel V10 option, available in Europe, making them the first diesel V10-powered sedan and SUV. They are rated 313 PS (230 kW).
* BMW has introduced a 5.0 L V10 in the 2005 BMW M5, marking the first non-Diesel V10 sedan. It reaches a maximum power of 507 PS (373 kW).
* The Lamborghini Gallardo also has a 90 degree 5.0 L DOHC V10 engine. It is has recently been improved to 520 PS (383 kW). A bigger (5.2 L) version of the engine, detuned to 450 PS (331 kW) version of the engine, is used in 2006 Audi S8.
* Porsche has introduced the Carrera GT with a 68 degree V10 displacing 5.7 L and producing 612 PS (450 kW).
A V10 is an engine in V configuration, having 10 cylinders in two banks of five.
Mechanicals
The V10 configuration is inherently imbalanced in the vertical plane and generates a rocking moment causing vibration from end to end of the engine. To contain this issue a balance shaft is required. Theoretically, the best V-angle is 72°; with this angle there is no vibration in vertical and transverse directions. The complexity of designing this made the V10 difficult to engineer without computer-aided design (CAD), and therefore the V10 was never used before the 1980s. To save development and parts costs, many V10 engines available today are based on 90° V8 engines, which is less than ideal for balance.
In automobiles, V12 engines have never been common, because of their complexity and thus cost. Their use has been thus confined to costly luxury and sports cars, in which they give superlative performance and smoothness characteristics. Prior to World War II, twelve-cylinder engines were found in many luxury models, including cars from Cadillac, Packard, Lincoln, Franklin, Rolls-Royce, and Hispano-Suiza. Packard's 1912 "Double Six" is widely regarded as the first production V12 engine. Postwar, the type lost favor in the United States, where the V8 became ubiquitous. Italian sports cars from such makers as Lamborghini and Ferrari used the V12 almost exclusively on their highest-performance vehicles, while Jaguar developed a V12 that was put into production in 1971 and lasted until 1997. Ferrari's newest V12 (used in the 456) is an odd 65° unit based on the Ferrari Dino V6, while the company's flat 12 engine is really a 180° V12. In the early 1990s, the German manufacturers Mercedes-Benz and BMW both introduced V12 designs. The BMW-designed V12 also appears in Rolls-Royce cars, while the Mercedes engine is also seen in Maybach cars. Aston Martin introduced a V12 model in 2001, while Cadillac is re-introducing the V12 after 60 years with a V12 version of their Cadillac Northstar engine range. This engine is to be available initially only in the Cadillac Escalade luxury SUV. Toyota equipped their Century Limousine with their own 5.0 L DOHC V12 engine, designated the 1GZ-FE. TVR made and tested a 7.7 L V12 called the Speed Twelve, reportedly making 1000+ BHP naturally aspirated, but the project was scrapped after the car it was designed for was deemed too powerful for practical use. A List of Postwar V12 Production Road Cars (Alphabetical by make, sub-sorted by year of introduction): * Aston Martin DB7 Vantage * Aston Martin Vanquish * Aston Martin DB AR1 * Aston Martin DB9 * BMW 750/760 * BMW 850i/Ci/CSi * Bugatti EB110 * Daimler Double Six * Ferrari 166 * Ferrari 195 * Ferrari 212 * Ferrari 340/342 * Ferrari 375/375 America * Ferrari 250 * Ferrari 410 Superamerica * Ferrari 400 Superamerica * Ferrari 275 * Ferrari 330 * Ferrari 500 Superfast * Ferrari 365 California Spider * Ferrari 365 GT 2+2 * Ferrari 365 GTC/GTS * Ferrari 365 GTB/4 & 365 GTS/4 (Daytona) * Ferrari 365 GTC/4 * Ferrari 365 GT4 2+2 * Ferrari 400i/412i * Ferrari 456 * Ferrari F50 * Ferrari 550 * Ferrari 575M Maranello * Ferrari Enzo Ferrari * Ferrari 612 Scaglietti * 575M Superamerica * Jaguar E-Type * Jaguar XJ-S * Jaguar XJ12 * Jaguar XJR15 * Lamborghini 350GT * Lamborghini 400GT * Lamborghini Islero * Lamborghini Miura * Lamborghini Espada * Lamborghini Jarama * Lamborghini Countach * Lamborghini Diablo * Lamborghini Murcielago * Lincoln Continental * Lincoln Zephyr * Lister Storm * Maserati MC12 * Maybach 57 and 62 * McLaren F1 * Mercedes-Benz S600/S65 AMG * Mercedes-Benz CL600/CL65 AMG * Mercedes-Benz SL600/SL65 AMG * Mercedes-Benz CLK-GTR * Pagani Zonda * Peugeot 907 (concept only) * Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph * Rolls-Royce Park Ward * Rolls-Royce Phantom * Toyota Century * TVR Cerbera Speed Twelve Sport-utilities:
* Lamborghini LM002 SUV Heavy trucks Tatra uses a 17.6 L air-cooled turbo diesel V12 engine in many of their trucks, for instance the Tatra T813 and Tatra T815. Some trucks have been fitted with twin V12s. GMC produced a large gasoline-burning V12 in the 1960s for trucks, the "Twin-Six"; it was basically GMC's large-capacity truck V6, doubled, with four cam covers and four exhaust manifolds. Its engine displacement was 702 in³ (11.5 L), and while power was not too impressive at 250 SAE net horsepower (190 kW), torque was 585 lbf•ft (793 N•m). It was possibly the last gasoline engine used in heavy trucks in the United States. Auto racing V12 engines used to be common in Formula One and endurance racing. Between 1965 and 1980, Ferrari, Weslake, Honda, BRM, Maserati, Matra, Alfa-Romeo, Lamborghini and Tecno used 12-cylinder engines in Formula One, either V12 or Flat-12, but the Ford (Cosworth) V8 had a slightly better power-to-weight ratio and less fuel consumption, thus it was more successful despite being less powerful than the best V12s. During the same era, V12 engines were superior to V8s in endurance racing, reduced vibrations giving better reliability. In the 1990s, Renault V10 engines proved their superiority against the Ferrari and Honda V12s and the Ford V8. Now all Formula One cars use V10 engines. Large diesel engines V12 is a common configuration for large diesel engines; most are available with differing numbers of cylinders in V configuration to offer a range of power ratings. Many diesel locomotives have V12 engines. Mercedes (MTU) manufacture a line of V12 diesel engines for marine use. These engines commonly power craft up to about 100 tonnes in pairwise configurations and range in power from about 1 to 4 MW.
V12 engines were first seen in aircraft. By the end of World War I, the V12 configuration was a fairly popular one in the newest and largest fighters and bombers; V12 engines were produced by companies such as Renault and Sunbeam. Many Zeppelins had V12 engines, from German manufacturers Maybach and Daimler. Various US companies produced the V12 liberty engine; the Curtiss NC Flying boats, such as the first aircraft to make a transatlantic flight, the NC-4, had a set of 4 V12 engines.
A number of World War II fighters and bombers used V12 engines such as the Rolls-Royce Merlin or the Allison V-1710 on the Allied side or the Daimler-Benz DB 600 on the German side, these engines were generating about 1,000 horsepower (0.75 MW) at the beginning of the War and about 1,500 horsepower (1.12 MW) at their ultimate evolution stage. The German DB 605D engine even reached 2000 hp (1.50 MW) with methanol-water injection. Their use disappeared quickly after the advent of the jet engine.
A V12 is an internal combustion engine with 12 cylinders in V configuration. Like a straight-6, this configuration has perfect primary and secondary balance no matter which V angle is used and therefore needs no balance shafts. A V12, with two banks of six cylinders angled at 60° from each other, has even firing with power pulses delivered twice as often per revolution as, and is much smoother than, a straight-6. This allows for great refinement in a luxury car; in a racing car, the rotating parts can be made much lighter and thus more responsive, since there is no need to use counterweights on the crankshaft as is needed in a 90° V8 and less need for the inertial mass in a flywheel to smooth out the power delivery. In a large, heavy-duty engine, a V12 can run slower than smaller engines, prolonging engine life.
A V20 is an internal combustion engine in V configuration, having 20 cylinders.
Engines of this number of cylinders are not common, but this configuration was used in some large diesel engines. For example, the 1960s vintage General Motors Electro-Motive Division EMD SD45 railroad locomotive was fitted with a 20-cylinder EMD 645E3 engine.
The engine name is based on the displacement of each cylinder in cubic inches. In this case 645 inch³ (10.6 L) for each of 20 cylinders - a total of 211 L. Power output is 3,600 horsepower (2.7 MW).
V20 diesel engines have also been used in marine applications: Mercedes-Benz has produced one such engine.
The base model remains the same and it is powered by a 170-hp 1.8L turbo charged engine or a 3.0L V6 with 220-hp.The A4 models are featured with Multitronic Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) while The A4 3.0 quattro is equipped with a five-speed automatic transmission. On safety come the standard equipment which includes an active rollover protection system, traction control, and side airbags. Other standard features are a triple-layer convertible top, five-spoke aluminum wheels.
Air-breathing engines use atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.
While chemical and electrical engines of enormous power dominate the modern world, engines themselves are not new. Engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and even steam power date back to antiquity.
Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and with ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements, this power was transmitted and multiplied. These were commonly used in cranes and aboard ships during Ancient Greece, and in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. Early oared warships used human power augmented by the simple engine of the lever -- the oar itself. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be far more ancient.
By the 1st century AD, various breeds of cattle and horses were used in mills, using machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.
According to Strabo, a water powered mill was built in Kaberia in the kingdom of Mithridates in the 1st century BC. Use of water wheels in mills slowly spread through Europe over the next few centuries. Some were quite complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to maintain and channel the water, and systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood with metal, used to regulate the speed of rotation. In a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century, he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water.
Hero of Alexandria demonstrated both wind and steam powered machines in the 1st century, although it's not known if these were put to any practical use until much later.
Modern
English inventor Sir Samuel Morland allegedly used gunpowder to drive water pumps in the 17th century. For more conventional, reciprocating internal combustion engines the fundamental theory for two-stroke engines was established by Sadi Carnot, France, 1824, whilst the American Samuel Morey received a patent on April 1, 1826.
Automotive production down the ages has required a wide range of energy-conversion systems. These include electric, steam, solar, turbine, rotary, and different types of piston-type internal combustion engines. The gasoline internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has traditionally been the most successful for automobiles, while diesel engines are widely used for trucks and buses. However, in the twenty first century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners. This is partially due to the improvement of engine control systems (computers) and forced induction (turbos and superchargers), giving modern diesel engines the same power characteristics as gasoline engines. This is especially evident with the popularity of diesel engines in Europe.
The internal combustion engine was originally selected for the automobile due to its flexibility over a wide range of speeds. Also, the power developed for a given weight engine was reasonable; it could be produced by economical mass-production methods; and it used a readily available, moderately priced fuel--gasoline.
In today’s world, there has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements that were not economically feasible in prior years. Although a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared from time to time, they have not proved to be competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics. However, the gasoline engine, with its new emission-control devices to improve emission performance, has not yet been challenged significantly.
The first half of the twentieth century saw a trend to increase engine power, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements. In passenger cars, V-8 layouts were adopted for all piston displacements greater than 250 cubic inches (4 litres).
Smaller cars brought about a return a to smaller engines, the four- and six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the standard-size V-8 of large cylinder bore and relatively short piston stroke with power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).
The automobile motor from Europe had a bigger range, varying from 1to12 cylinders with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) was followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency.
The hyper engine was a hypothetical aircraft engine design, an engine that would be able to deliver 1 horsepower per cubic inch (46 kW/L) of engine displacement. The term was generally used only in the United States, where the Army Air Corps funded development of several hyper engines of about 1200 cubic inches (20 L) in the 1930's, hoping the engine's small size would lead to better streamlining and improved range. None of these designs entered production, by the time they were ready new aircraft designs were demanding much larger engines.
During the 1930s designers were looking to the future of engine development, and the need for engines of about 1 hp/in³ became an obvious target. It was clear that this sort of performance would not be easy to achieve. A typical large engine of the era, the Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp, developed about 1,200 hp (895 kW) from 1,820 in³ (30 L), so an advance of some 50% would be needed.
As the ultimate design goal was a favourable power-to-weight ratio for long-range airliners and bombers, which needed to be able to lift huge fuel loads and still have extra capability left over for cargo and passengers, simply scaling up an existing design was no solution. While it would have increased the total available power, it would not have any dramatic effect on the power-to-weight; for that more radical changes were needed.
Improvements in construction and lighter materials had already delivered some benefits. Aluminum cast-block engines were rapidly improving in quality in the early 1930s and had lowered engine weight noticeably. However another 50% savings simply wasn't there. To reach that goal engines would either have to extract more power from the fuel, or alternately run at a higher speed (more "bangs" deliver more power).
Engines were already fairly efficient, so in order to extract more power they would have to increase the amount of fuel/air mixture, the charge, either by growing larger or using a supercharger to force more charge into the engine. The whole idea of the hyper concept was to remain small, so only the second solution would help in this case. However at the time the entire industry used 87 octane fuels and were already running near the compression ratio limit for that fuel (about 6.5 to 1). Increasing compression, although mechanically possible, would lead to ping and potentially damage the engine.
Increasing RPM looked considerably more attractive. At the time a number of problems hampered this way forward, notably problems with the poppet valves used in most engines. At higher operating speeds they simply could not open and close fast enough to keep up with the engine. Additionally the exhaust valves tended to heat up so much they created hot-spots inside the cylinder that could also lead to ping.
Several solutions to the valve problem were known in the 1930s. In England, Harry Ricardo had become a proponent of the sleeve valve system for exactly these reasons, and had some success convincing British engine companies to invest in the idea, notably Bristol Engines, where Roy Fedden became "a believer". His competitor, Frank Halford, designed his own sleeve valve engine, which was picked up by Napier & Son.
Sleeve valves were not the only solution, however. Another was to use overhead cams pushing multiple smaller valves per cylinder to improve airflow, and to cool the valves with liquid sodium to prevent hot spots. Several developments based on these solutions were started in the late 1930s.
Continental Motors worked from 1932 on their IV-1430, finally getting to production quality in 1943. By this point other engines had passed its 1,600 hp (1,200 kW) ratings, and while the I-1430 had a better power-to-weight ratio, there was little else to suggest it was worthwhile setting up production in the middle of the war.
Lycoming spent almost as much time on their 1,275 hp (951 kW) O-1230, and found much the same reception when it was ready for production in 1939. They tried again by bolting two O-1230's together into the H-2470 H engine, and while this engine was planned for use in the P-53, this plane did not go into production, and neither did the engine.
Ford also worked on their V-1650 based on the hyper principles, but this saw almost no interest.
Generally the problems with the designs were not so much technical as that they were simply providing too little total power. By the time they were ready for production the aircraft industry was demanding much more power from any new design than they could yield. Re-engining existing airframes designed for 1,200 hp (890 kW) class engines would have resulted in a notable performance increase, but even for that a major airframe re-design would have been required to take the full advantage of a buried engine. Such a redesign was not considered worthwhile, mostly because much larger aircraft with considerably more performance would be available at about the same time.
In fact the first successful hyper engine was British. The Napier Sabre was running at lower ratings in 1938, and became a hyper when it reached 2,400 hp (1,800 kW) in 1940, from 2,238 in³ (36.7 L). Using sleeve valves, the Sabre ran at 3,800 RPM, in an era when 2,400 to 2,600 rpm was normal, thereby explaining its 50% increase in performance. Bristol's series of air-cooled radials matured earlier, and went on to become popular engines for many late-war designs.
Ironically, by the end of the war most engines were technically hypers due to improved charge - the very solution considered not viable in the 1930s. This was due to ever increasing octane ratings of the available fuels. Pre-war engines ran on 87 octane fuel, but the British were able to buy up most of the world's supply of light sweet crude just before the war started, and with improvements to their distilation factories they were able to guarentee supply of 100 octane fuels. This led to an immediate boost in power for all supercharged engines then in service. By the end of the war the Rolls-Royce Merlin could deliver bursts of up to 2,000 hp (1.5 MW) from 1650 in³ (27 L), running on 150 octane fuel and dramatically increasing supercharger boost levels. Of course the same was also true of the Sabre, who's late-war prototypes delivered a whopping 3,500 hp (2.6 MW).
The base model remains the same and it is powered by a 170-hp 1.8L turbo charged engine or a 3.0L V6 with 220-hp.The A4 models are featured with Multitronic Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) while The A4 3.0 quattro is equipped with a five-speed automatic transmission. On safety come the standard equipment which includes an active rollover protection system, traction control, and side airbags. Other standard features are a triple-layer convertible top, five-spoke aluminum wheels.
The base model remains the same and it is powered by a 170-hp 1.8L turbo charged engine or a 3.0L V6 with 220-hp.The A4 models are featured with Multitronic Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) while The A4 3.0 quattro is equipped with a five-speed automatic transmission. On safety come the standard equipment which includes an active rollover protection system, traction control, and side airbags. Other standard features are a triple-layer convertible top, five-spoke aluminum wheels.
In 2004 Beetle came out with some technical changes that include an improved emissions system, standard dual head/thorax airbags,a new engine cover design. The GLS with 1.8T has new optional 17-inch alloy wheels and Electronic stability traction control is also available.Among other options it includes HID Xenon headlights, a ski sack, and an wind deflector.
On the Corvette's 50th Anniversary it came out only as a coupe or convertible.Le Mans Blue exterior and champagne-painted wheels were the main features, but others like Magnetic Selective Ride Control and embroidered badges on the seats, floormats, and armrests made the car shine.The Magnetic Selective Ride Control improves stability and reduces vibration, and noise.
An H engine (or H-block) is an engine configuration in which the cylinders are aligned so that if viewed from the front appear to be in a horizontal letter H.
An H engine can be viewed as two flat engines, one atop the other. The "two engines" each have their own crankshaft, which are then geared together at one end for power-take-off. This leads to a worse power-to-weight ratio than simpler configurations with only one shaft. The only obvious advantage of the H configuration is to allow the building of reasonably short engines with more than 12 cylinders, their compact size being useful as aircraft engines where their small size allows for better aerodynamics.
The H configuration is therefore very uncommon. Known examples are:
* The British Racing Motors H-16 Formula One engine, which was a major failure. This engine was powerful but heavy and unreliable, had low torque and a high center of gravity. Jackie Stewart is believed to have said "This piece of metal is better used as a ship's anchor than as a power plant".
* The Lycoming H 2470 hyper engine, that did not go into production.
* The Napier Rapier, Dagger and Sabre airplane engines. Unlike the BRM and the Lycoming, the Sabre eventually matured into a superb design.
Subaru produces water-cooled flat-4 and flat-6 "Horizontal" engines that are marketed as H-4 and H-6, despite the fact that their configuration has nothing to do with a real H engine.
